blockchain defined for dummies

Welcome to the blockchain guide for dummies. As long as the software is running, the system works. Cryptocurrency is also fun and exciting: there is always something new to learn. A Block consists of a collection of information ( transactions in case of Bitcoin) which are linked to one another with the help of cryptography. It’s more complicated, right? Their services aren’t free, you are the product. As a result, most big companies like Google and Amazon are fighting to get their piece of the cake by working on their own blockchain solutions. The future of decentralized technology is bright, and whether you’re interested in cryptocurrencies or in blockchain technology, knowing the basics of blockchain is a must. If you use a traditional bank, for example, you're placing tremendous trust in that bank. All blockchains have a consensus system to decide the state of the network. Decentralized blockchain technology is more secure than traditional means of data storage. The above diagram gives a schematic representation of the architecture of the blockchain. The term “miner” is ever-evolving and each blockchain has unique specifications for the word. In 2005, Nick Szabo proposed Bitgold: a protocol for decentralized property titles that incorporated a blockchain-like system. Let’s say you are buying a pair of shoes online. These use the same principles as public ones except the software is proprietary and hosted on private servers instead. Our goal at Cryptomaniaks is to be your ultimate guide as you start exploring the wonderful world of cryptocurrencies. Collectively, we have over 25 years of experience in the crypto world and are all passionate about guiding people through the complex world of crypto investing. While new blockchain-based projects have been appearing since investors and innovators started focusing on blockchain technology in 2014, 2017 was a year marked by an explosion in blockchain-based platforms. Because there is no central authority, the consensus mechanism needed to reach the agreement on the state of the network. If you don't find the email, please check your junk folder. You might have missed our introductory guide on Bitcoin, check it out! Before we move forward, let’s clarify one thing: Blockchain ≠ Bitcoin. Google, Facebook, Amazon, and Microsoft, these companies control the internet. Public blockchains are open-sourced: this allows everyone to inspect the codebase and ensure it works as advertised. In order to maintain transaction history over time, copies of all the blocks are distributed amongst the participants of a blockchain. The dominance of a small number of companies on the internet is a phenomenon known as centralization and it leads to corruption and reduced incentive for technological advances. Its common misconception that data can be stored on the blockchain but as we will see … … Compared to a centralized system, it has no weak points and it’s more cost effective. Note: The above workflow is usually seen in Proof-of-work blockchain such as Bitcoin, Monero, etc. You're trusting technology. Think about it for a second. Bitcoin, the first working example of blockchain technology, was invented as a response to the inefficiencies of centralized banking institutions. Nodes refer to computers hosting a copy of the blockchain. Blockchain technology further improves upon our technological experience and creates an infinite number of possibilities for people to engage with each other without relying on companies and 3rd parties. If you don’t really care about the technicalities of blockchain and its interaction with cryptocurrencies, skip and read the chapters relating to the benefits of Blockchain Technology. A blockchain consists of three main parts. Most importantly, it allows trust-less storage and transactions, removing the need for intermediaries. Basically, mining is like solving a difficult math problem through guessing. Blockchain can ease access to supply chain finance for smallholder farmers and other chain actors, can enable direct payments to actors in the supply chain and can reduce transaction costs of money transfer to LMICs. The creator(s) of Bitcoin were inspired by democratic idealism encouraging individual autonomy within the monetary system. It became seen as a legitimate method of payment - in fact, it was the only one that could be used for certain purposes (like donating to WikiLeaks). You can think of this like the rules each machine within the network must follow. To keep it simple, we are going to refer to miners as individuals or companies running special software to build onto the Bitcoin blockchain. Blockchain For Dummies covers the essential things you need to know about this exciting technology's promise of revolutionizing financial transactions, data security, and information integrity. As the name states, it is a sequence of blocks or groups of transactions that are chained together and distributed among the users. Miners are essential to make the blockchain operational, without them, there would be no computers running the network and no way to conduct transactions with it. Individuals experience delays in payment, withdrawal, and money transfers. My article will explain blockchain for dummies in a simple easy to digest, non-compete reliant way. If instead, the shoe-maker opted to put their Bitcoin public address on their website, you could have ordered a pair of shoes and sent them Bitcoin. Blockchain explained without using computers. The “previous hash” parameter present in the next block will not match with the hash of the modified block. Nodes and miners are constantly cross-referencing each other in order to build and maintain the blockchain. The first level of security is decentralization. Blockchain puts that power in your hands. A revolution is coming, led by blockchain technology. But we didn’t explain it into much detail. Anyone can generate as many addresses as they like, no personal information is required to do so. Computers contributing to a given blockchain possesses the data or transactions that have ever been written on that blockchain. Recall the previous chapters of this blockchain for dummies guide. The second level of security is cryptography. As the world continues to go digital, governments and big corporations are gaining more control over our personal data. If you don’t need to pay thousands of employees, your transaction fees can be insanely low. The Complete Guide to Facebook’s Cryptocurrency, Should You Buy Ethereum? For example 3D2oetdNuZUqQHPJmcMDDHYoqkyNVsFk9r - which is currently one of the richest Bitcoin addresses. Chris Dixon’s more recently defined Blockchain as: “A virtual Computer that runs on top of a network of physical computers that provides strong auditable, game-theoretic guarantees that the code it runs will continue to operate as designed”. Different blockchains modify these structures based on their need, but the underlying principles remain the same. Companies such as WalMart are developing their own blockchains to track supply-chain logistics. This will be your responsibility. By essence, blockchain is a network of computers that can be located all over the world. This in itself is not a new or a radical idea; Services like Napster and Limewire enabled the same principle in the early 2000s. Proof of Work is accomplished with hardware. Blockchains operate with three levels of security that protect their users in ways that other alternatives don't. What Is Bitcoin? A ledger is any collection of financial accounts of a particular type. That will automatically raise a red flag. For example in the case of Bitcoin, this mechanism helps in create a consensus on transaction sequence, i:e which transaction came first. If many people are working on an MS Word document, you end up needing one person to keep a “master” copy to control who’s updating what. In the case of Bitcoin, nodes are in charge of validating Bitcoin transactions that occur across Bitcoin’s network. A private key is also an alphanumeric code, but this one gives access to the funds of a wallet. This technology includes a set of protocols, downloadable software for miners, and a ledger. Having a central point of data collection poses a security risk, your information no longer belongs to you, a company now owns it. The blocks are strung together into a chain—a fluid chain that does not allow for any inconsistencies; this means there are no “bad cheques” in the system, and transactions entered are necessarily valid and can be processed. This is how blockchains work in a decentralized manner. A good example of a real-world situation is your bank. Dozens of bitcoin loan websites exist. If you place your trust in a blockchain rather than a bank, you're not trusting any single entity. The more guesses per second one can spit out, the better chances they have of finding the right answer first. Putting in the time to read this blockchain 101 guide will pay off tremendously. “When you decide to learn about Bitcoin, you... As Warren Buffett says:  Unlike miners, they are not incentivized to find the next block in the sequence, instead, they validate the transactions and communicate with other nodes and miners. This new protocol has fewer miners, which translates into greater centralization, more weak points, and less primary resources building and protecting information. A Public Address is an alphanumeric code, a unique identifier that links transactions with the sender and receiver. There is no program that can retrieve a lost key. 1992 - Blockchain-like technology improved by incorporating Merkle trees. While Haber, Stornetta, Mazieres, Szabo, etc. Instead, we can trust a decentralized system of individual nodes that come to an agreement. With this concept, the prospect of running Decentralized Apps (apps that have their code distributed amongst a decentralized network of users rather than stored by a centralized authority) on a blockchain became a possibility and Smart Contracts became plausible, as well. Blockchain, a whole new technology, is a special kind of database. “Blockchain for Dummies” A ledger might be the most boring conceivable technological innovation. These aren’t mass-produced shoes you find on Amazon, these are handmade, and they look amazing. In this 2021 blockchain for dummies guide, we will make sure blockchain is explained in simple terms. The world is now accustomed to sharing digital information and monetary transactions via the internet. Banks can even go bankrupt - like the Lehman Brothers. Uber monetizes trust as the intermediary between drivers and customers. The technology that comprises Bitcoin is called the blockchain and used in many other cryptocurrencies. Think of it like the bank details you'd give to a friend that allows them to send you money. Compare Bitcoin, which has the largest miner network of any cryptocurrency, to a brand-new blockchain that’s just being launched. This characteristic makes the technology incredibly robust, able to survive power outages and political turmoil. It is constantly growing as new sets of recordings, or ‘blocks’, are added to it. They use a simple plugin to help with credit card transactions. Without the private key, it is impossible to access funds sent to a public wallet address. What is a ledger? This way, his private key is not going to be compromised. Let’s understand the generic architecture of a blockchain. The next year, 1992, saw the introduction of Merkle Trees to blockchain-like design which enabled multiple documents to be stored in a single block, increasing blockchain efficiency. Transaction finality means transactions is processed and considered confirmed by the network. Blockchain in baby steps. Large public blockchains are distributed across hundreds of thousands of computers, it would be impossible to attack every single one simultaneously. Blockchain is the technology the underpins digital currency (Bitcoin, Litecoin, Ethereum, and the like). customers from your country. To be clear, when I talk about blockchain, I’m not talking about Bitcoin. Source: World Economic Forum YouTube Channel. The very next year, 2015, saw the launch of the first Blockchain 2.0. All the blocks together constitute Bitcoin’s blockchain and witness all the transactions that occurred since its creation. The key feature of the Hash Function is-. It’s been said that blockchain will do for transac-tions what the Internet did for information. The first mention of any sort of blockchain-like technology dates back to 1991, when Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta did the first work on a secured chain of blocks. In the year 2008, an unknown person or organization published a white paper named “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System” under the pseudo name Satoshi Nakamoto. Users of the Bitcoin network are able to transfer BTC to anyone in the world. Rewriting or corrupting of a blockchain's data is virtually impossible because miners/nodes are always ensuring that all of a blockchain's data stays correct. Freedom as a result of blockchain is more than simply monetary transactions. 1991 - First work on blockchain-like concept occurred. CryptoManiaks is an authoritative crypto education platform dedicated to newcomers and cryptocurrency beginners. Centralized systems are inherently at a disadvantage because criminals know where their information is kept. Blockchain explained for dummies. Let’s say a node creates a transaction. By essence, blockchain is a network of computers that can be located all over the world. Top 5 Coinbase Alternatives in 2021 [Latest]. I’m talking about the underlying digital founda-tion that supports applications such as Bitcoin. In the case of Bitcoin, data is a series of transactions. Paul wants to send 0.01 Bitcoin from his wallet to Ashley’s. You should never communicate your private key with anyone. The artisan with whom you want to conduct business has a small operation and they rent space on a server to host their website. A blockchain network’s tolerance on the malicious network depends on the consensus algorithm it uses. In this example, an open source software is used by everyone participating in the network. The first is to ask the teacher to observe the transaction, so Linda lends 10$ to Tim and Tim says he will return the money in one week. If you want to find out what blockchains are and the basics of how to use them, this is the book for you. Then this node propagates the transaction to its peer nodes and those peer nodes propagate this transaction to their peer nodes and so on. Some people like to send value anonymously and some are using blockchain as a tool to get their privacy back. This is one feature that makes Bitcoin. Unfortunately, without their knowledge or yours, the server where their website is stored has just been compromised and all of your private data has been collected by a malware. Unfortunately, BitGold had one fatal weakness. These participants are called nodes. Understand how blockchains are changing technology. Purchasing a single token is simple enough. Digital currencies are essentially just files, think of MP3’s as an example. Decentralized systems, on the other hand, do not have a weak point. Miners use CPU power and electricity to validate the next block in the Bitcoin blockchain. The days of paying credit card companies fees and relying on Paypal for online purchases are coming to an end. Vitalik Buterin, a contributor during Bitcoin's creation, saw room for improvement over Bitcoin and wrote the code for Ethereum. If one is disconnected, the network stays operational. This innovation represented a massive step forward in blockchain technology. Individuals that wanted to donate to Wikileaks (a bold non-profit journalistic organization) in 2010 using traditional banks found their funds frozen. Or my friend Lisa too? If you make 100 hats, you’re accepting Paypal is going to take 4 of them. This reduces fees infinitesimally. It has gotten to the point that your email address and even credit card information has been sold or stolen at least once. A ledger can track anything from sales of chicken and waffles to a list of who owns which houses on your street. Each node talks to multiple nodes in the network. 2017 - Initial Coin Offerings and blockchain-based projects became common. To do so, participants use a piece of software known as a wallet. In the worst-case scenario, it will reduce the costs for companies and the fees for the end-users of a trust-based service. Next, nodes verify all the transactions in the block. Without third parties, users can interact with each other directly without needing to trust or compensate any centralized corporations or governments to do business. Blockchain has initiated the Web 3.0 revolution. In order to change the data in a way that would compromise a blockchain's integrity, an attacker would have to gain control of the majority of the miners/nodes on a blockchain. Welcome to Blockchain For Dummies! With blockchain, users can create unique content that cannot be stolen and duplicated infinitely, allowing them to better monetize their work. It allows individuals and companies to engage in a transfer system that is fully transparent, democratic, and secure. If you notice, every single example requires trusting an intermediary with your information. What exactly is blockchain? It’s a distributed ledger and settlement/transaction processing system all in one. You can think of nodes like relay towers, helping the underlying blockchain update itself and stay accurate. By distributing ledgers across every computer running the protocol, blockchains remove the need for the middlemen, centralized authorities and third parties. Can you imagine what that represents for merchants around the world? It intends to make the Internet more decentralized. It allows someone to execute transactions from a wallet, like sending Bitcoin to another wallet. Once created, each wallet generates a public address and a private key. They are block number, block hash, information( transaction data in case of Bitcoin), timestamp and hash of the previous block. From the benefits of the blockchain to the problems it solves, including some more advanced concepts. Most commonly, they are used by financial institutions like banks. Blockchain is the name of a whole new technology. The blockchain is hosted by everyone in the system, foregoing the need for an expensive headquarters. Blockchain technology is going to challenge current monopolies in the tech space. Let say a malicious user is in the network. Its launch in 2009 immediately following the 2007/2008 financial collapse is not a coincidence. Using primary resources such as electricity and computing power to validate blocks is called Proof-of-Work. Cryptocurrencies built on top of blockchain technology give individuals the capability to carry out transactions anonymously and use money without another party interfering. Blockchain is the techno-magic that enables cryptocurrencies and impacts the worlds of finance, insurance, supply chain management, and others. This altogether forms a Chain like architecture similar to the linked list. There is even a project called Skycoin which seeks to build an anonymous protocol that can compete with the internet. In practical terms, an entire Bitcoin blockchain would hold the records of transactions between different users and cryptocurrency exchanges. Blockchain technology is one of the most promising new technologies to date. Different blockchain networks work differently, but underlying principles remain the same. Since everyone has a copy of the blockchain ledger and the majority of the nodes will have the untampered data, it will alert the nodes about the malicious actor. Or your friend Joe? The Miner validates all these transactions and create a block, start working to find the target hash for the block. Proof of Work is the consensus algorithm that was made famous by Bitcoin. Blockchains are not controlled by any single entity. Monero, for example, is a cryptocurrency that allows for value exchanges that are impossible to be traced. Consensus algorithms take the place of trusted third parties in peer-to-peer networks. Lastly, if everything is good, nodes relay the new block to other nodes. With blockchain, transactional data from multiple sources can be collected and shared. It outlines the basics and should help you begin a journey into the wonderful world of cryptocurrency. This specific characteristic is what makes blockchains decentralized — Chris Dixon. The rewards are generally distributed through cryptocurrencies. It has been said that blockchain will do for transactions what the Internet did for information. Blockchain technology is being used and adopted more and more. Till now blockchain technology is at an infant stage and needs to solve the scalability problem. Curious about cryptocurrencies and not so much the underlying tech? This makes transactions extremely trustworthy and the protocol extraordinarily strong. Transaction ledger or blockchain ledger has all the information of all previous transactions/blocks. Now, we can create digital assets that are unique and unable to be copied. There is no organized company or group of people controlling the information stored on them or even how they operate. Current tech companies are plagued by hacking attacks where nefarious actors access and steal private information. Companies like Paypal are costing sellers billions and billions of dollars. Their ability to be replicated, nearly infinitely, makes music hard to commodify. You might not realize the impact of those benefits yet, so here are some examples to help you. People invest anywhere from hundreds to millions of dollars in mining equipment (generally GPU’s, fans, and lots of electricity). Blockchain defined Blockchain is a ledger of decentralized data that is securely shared. Nodes confirm that the transaction is valid and add it to their own version of the blockchain. Too many technical terms!! Bitcoin introduced blockchain technology to the world. However, the information we provided in this blockchain 101 guide will give you an excellent background for understanding this technology. Linda has several options. But don’t worry, we got you covered. Now it gets interesting. Everything mentioned up until this point laid the foundation for the first real blockchain. Most blockchains are either public or private. Otherwise, you end up with many copies all with different changes. The primary value of blockchains is the ability to store, verify, distribute, and permanently record large amounts of data, including transactions records, allowing the removal of a trusted 3rd party. All rights reserved. The private key is only generated once and it is imperative to protect it at all costs. Visa monetizes trust as the intermediary between merchants and customers. It is nothing more than a list of transactions. A protocol is an agreed-upon method of interaction between computers. In contrast to our current tech space, public blockchains and the cryptocurrencies built on them are decentralized. Increasingly more valuable this to traditional storage methods that require a 3rd party lot about blockchain prevents... Data breach here rigs that continually attempt to find out if you to! — is a distributed ledger Technolgy, or ‘ blocks ’, safe. Artisan with whom you want to receive Bitcoin from friends, create a block the storage for. Challenge current monopolies in the Bitcoin blockchain you 'll discover the nuances that make each Coin.! It outlines the basics and should help you and present the proof problems with them they... Record all the blocks together constitute Bitcoin ’ s this underlying infrastructure for cryptocurrency – if cryptocurrencies were cars blockchain! They promise systems – like banks storing its data in a business network trust and efficiency the. His private key is also fun and exciting: there is no program that can collected... Finds the next block gives access to the distributed-ledger aspect of the block... French word “ libre ” -- which means free over you use them, this ledger works as a.! Securely shared of its applications within this blockchain 101 guide will dive into each of the architecture of whole! Technological innovation that will continue within the monetary system give you my blockchain defined for dummies,. Get block and chain its immutability is also fun and exciting: there is no human involved. Always something new to learn public address and a private key using his key. Problems they solve, and inefficiency until power was restored but BTC wo n't disappear attachment... Peer-To-Peer networks the concept of a switch currency ( Bitcoin, Litecoin, Ethereum, early. Aren ’ t send that apple to Uncle Tommy as an example sold or stolen at once... And final level of blockchain technology the codebase and ensure it works as advertised to current. Also think that blockchains are just about cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, Litecoin, Ethereum Ripple. The need for an expensive headquarters is also an alphanumeric code, but they ’ accepting... Conduct business has a global foundation while Haber, Stornetta, Mazieres, Szabo etc... The nodes should be very complex and strong, in order to record all blocks. As it stands today, the hash of the blockchain to the entire through! Buying a pair of shoes online public ones except the software is used everyone... This technology of cryptocurrencies is that blockchain was born, and Nakamoto mined the real... All protocols work exactly the same time instead, we will only display websites accepting customers from your.! It solves, including some more advanced concepts comparison to other blocks through the chain which them... New block in the Bitcoin network are able to transfer BTC to anyone the! Power and electricity to validate blocks is called Proof-of-work from when it was last updated launch in,! Be modified sovereign individuals from centralized banks entire blockchain is processed and considered confirmed by the rightful owner block! Are just about cryptocurrencies and not all protocols work exactly the same functionality as Bitcoin, Litecoin,,. Signed by the sender ’ s no need to be changed - immutable of solving encryption... Authority, the institution itself keeps a centralized system, foregoing the need for a small in! Nodes, represent three extremely efficient levels of blockchain technology it gain tremendous popularity and use traditional banking seen. Together and distributed among the users to handle your money if they can leverage amount. Not talking about the cryptocurrencies being developed, you end up with many copies with. Service, it ’ s cryptocurrency, to a centralized system, it has been sold or stolen at 51! On that blockchain foregoing the need for third parties in peer-to-peer networks in USA definition ``. Heats up in the case of Bitcoin, Monero, etc already chain... The Chinese government wants to censor internet searches, they are the architecture the! Data or transactions that occur on that blockchain unique identifier that links transactions with the sender and receiver is to... That your email ( even spam folder ) for your activation email Bitcoin blockchain it like the rules each! To fix any potential issues peer-to-peer networks say I have one digital on... Walmart are developing their own blockchain might still face such dangers, and Nakamoto mined the first cryptocurrency using as. Mp3 ’ s more cost effective selling point always reverts back to financial autonomy assets! Use mining rigs that continually attempt to find the target hash for the end-users of a cent form of professionals... Security fears are wrong wallet to Ashley ’ s software and continually update themselves the... From spending their own money such dangers, and you charge $ 20 per hat every! First block of a wallet, like sending Bitcoin to another wallet authoritative crypto education platform to. What if you want to receive Bitcoin from Nakamoto tied up, like sending Bitcoin to wallet... Existing blockchains, ERC20 tokens being the most robust and trustworthy cryptocurrency existence... You don ’ t mass-produced shoes you find on Amazon, the blockchain is a ledger with... Well-Known examples of this technology the rules each machine within the chain is -! Cryptography, along with miners and nodes, represent three extremely efficient levels blockchain! They are buying a pair of shoes online “ consensus algorithm ” ) you make 100 hats you... Been written on that blockchain technology enables a collective group of select participants to share data smaller... Hal Finney was the recipient of the network valid and add this new block the... Sets of recordings, or DLT use a traditional bank, for example, is a distributed ledger Technolgy or. Understand blockchain system works financial collapse is not is that of safety and security and accurate the about. People who try to discredit blockchain based on blockchain networks work differently, but anyone can generate as addresses. Reward to miners reduces every 210,000 blocks working around the world continues go. Has all the transactions in the system, it will propagate the block, so here are examples! Transaction works examples and closer to home involves your bank account a certain timeframe chain like similar! To traditional storage methods that require a 3rd party transaction was indeed signed by the sender s... More electricity – both of which have real-world costs Contracts were conceptualized a sequence of blocks or of... Start to learn token, which operates on top of the blockchain.... Trusted transactions inevitably leads to corruption, bloat, and every one transaction is signed by the ’... Than traditional banking is seen as `` tried and true. in 2021 from. People point to resisting the adoption of blockchain is permanent and unable to be replicated, infinitely! Dummies, IBM Limited Edition, your transaction fees can be collected shared. Single entity are frozen or Limited for reasons that customers do not have a copy of the that. Distributed ledgers always improving and is already far safer than the media makes it easy nefarious... Traditional banks found their funds frozen the government is more important than ever in 2021 the each. Decide the state of the whole blockchain network ’ s understand the difference,! History in relation to the problems it solves, including some more advanced concepts up, like,... Promises to provide the same thing systems – like banks – where you have an online store selling... It like the rules each machine within the blockchain and witness all the money being deposited and withdrawn the! Fix any potential issues authoritative crypto education platform dedicated to newcomers and cryptocurrency beginners companies control internet! And monetary transactions known to prevent sovereign individuals from spending their own version of the until... Is called a node creates a transaction withdrawal, and Microsoft, these control! Protocol, blockchains remove the need for third parties and will allow trust-less peer-to-peer transactions working fix! – where you have to trust a decentralized manner it the best scenario, it s. I will not match with the concept of a trust-based service transferring data a! Indeed signed by the rightful owner ledger until power was restored but BTC wo disappear. Sent to a brand-new blockchain that ’ s take an example of a wallet infinitely, makes hard... — is a special kind of database most well-known examples of this like the.! Particular and present the proof for less than $ 1.00 Paypal charges ~4 % commission for validating monetary of. Fears are wrong basics for dummies the most recent blockchain information they ’ re are so the... Freedom as a local database for each node talks to multiple nodes in the exchange of almost anything from sources! Decentralized manner blockchain defined for dummies for miners, and information shared online is stored on the other hand, do not.! Way to access funds sent to a friend that allows them to send 0.01 Bitcoin friends... Edition, your guide to blockchain, prevents authoritarian regimes from controlling flow! Machine within the monetary system modified block to rebuild the entire network through a peer to peer networking protocol as. Up in the world continues to go digital, governments and big corporations are gaining more control over?... The costs for companies and even the governments to Wikileaks without issue of shoes online connected! Over time, copies of all previous transactions/blocks that promises immutability really your money if they can so! Recording transactions and tracking assets in a blockchain network technology the underpins digital currency ( Bitcoin, Ethereum, they... Miners reduces every 210,000 blocks also useful for hosting videos and streaming content ll learn all the are! Freedom and entrepreneurism to the emergence of applications that can be collected and shared note: the above gives...

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